| Dr. Richard Altenbaugh a professor of educational history at Slippery Rock
University, after reviewing his credentials was accepted as an expert witness. The defense
objected to his presentation as only his opinion. The objection was overruled by Judge
Pellegrini. Thomas Jefferson and the founders of the United States were concerned about
the possible disorder resulting from such a young democracy. Dr. Benjamin Rush of
Pennsylvania, a signer of the Declaration of Independence was among those founders who
believed that if you are going to give political power to the people, they would have to
make wise and enlightened choices. There was also the threat of foreign powers on the
continent. These founders believed that an educated electorate would be the greatest
defense of the country. Formerly the church and the family were the educators. To make
a patriotic country these leaders felt that there would have to be a more overarching kind
of education and not as fragmented. Wealthy folks were able to go to elite private schools
and had private tutors. There were proposals to make a national set of schools that would
have a vertical elementary to university set up. The part of that proposed system were the
two military academies. The Northwest Ordinance was the precursor of statewide school
systems.
Dr. Rush wanted, as did Jefferson a "Uniform" system of schooling. Jefferson
wanted a literate electorate so that there could be no dictatorship (not a word used
then). The word uniform appears in Rush's writing. Children, in Rush's mind were resources
for the country. He wanted township, county schools 4 universities and a University in
Harrisburg. He talked about taxpayers at the state and local level paying taxes for the
schools. None of that was accomplished, but the ideals came through. Horace Mann espoused
Jefferson and Rush's words.
The elements of the common schools were:
Free elementary schools
Trained Staff
State control of local schools
90% of all folks were rural at the time. In early times, families got together to hire
a teacher and paid him on the barter system called "County Pay" There were
district schools and in the Urban areas there were the elite schools and some schools for
the children of craftsmen. Most children were not in schools. The wealthy were afraid of
the masses so they began, by philanthropy and some public funds to create "Pauper
Schools." You had to admit that you were poor to get into these schools and that was
demeaning. Kids were taught in rooms with 2-300 students just to do memorization. This was
called the Lancastrian Schools.
The need for public schools became evident in the 1820's and 1830's and culminated in
the common schools of Horace Mann in Massachusetts. For this to happen, State control was
necessary. There was no uniformity before the common schools. It was an effort to put all
of the classes of people in the same environment (the era of Jacksonian Democracy). There
would be a universality of education and children were viewed as the property of the
state. In Pennsylvania in the 1820s and 1830s the Workingman's Association was at the
forefront of "lobbying" for public schools.
Governor Wolfe proposed common schools in 1831 it was worked on in the early 1830s and
by 1834 it passed. Thaddeus Stevens had to defend it against the religious schools and
Pennsylvania Germans who worried that their language would die out. There was an emphasis
on uniformity and equality of opportunity. Society and the Commonwealth. Out of the 1834
law came some problems of places who did not want to form school districts. Of the 987
proposed districts there were 100-200 that did not function.
By the 1850's the state had taken a bolder step in enforcing compulsory education. The
state did not start taking parents to court until 1897. The coming of the child labor laws
made children more available to schools. There were minimum times to go to school. Some
progressives felt that work was not a good set of values for children at such an early
age. There was a missionary zeal to save children.
In the Constitutional Convention of 1874 there were discussions of the education clause
as it comes down to us in the writings. The term "thorough and Efficient " is
left in and the term uniform is left out because the interpretation of the word. There was
a concern that each district would have to buy the same textbook or look the same way.
There were those who wanted uniform to prevent unequal schools. The answer was that the
word system conveys a uniformity and that is what we have a "Thorough and Efficient
System"
There was no cross-examination.
We will continue to update the suit as other happenings occur. This was
the final day of the trial; the plaintiffs, the intervenor, the state and rebuttal. The
state reserves the right to call their own expert witness. There are certain things that
have to happen next. Clearing up of all exhibits, findings of fact, briefs, arguments,
etc. Keep looking at the Website for continuous updates. The site will also expand shortly
to portray the PARSS proposal for funding and taxation and other items of interest |
